Preliminary Remarks: Medieval Philosophy

PRELIMINARY REMARKS Although the philosophy of St. Augustine was discussed at the end of the last Book, it must be recalled that he was not the latest Father in point of time. Fathers of the later centuries—up to the 8—were mentioned in the Chapter preceding that on St. Augustine. It is true that these later Fathers did nothing great in the field of philosophy, but they kept tradition intact and thus served to bridge the long gap that stretches, in intellectual history, between the 4 and the 8 centuries. Scholastic Philosophy was the outstanding system of the Medieval Period. Indeed, the history of Scholasticism is the history of philosophy of the Middle Ages. In tracing the progress of this great system, the historian must discuss incidentally all the other and minor philosophies of the age, for all of these have a more or less distinct bearing upon Scholastic Philosophy. The most important of such minor systems were certain Arabian and Jewish philosophies. Direct anti-Scholas-ticism among Europeans belongs integrally to the history of Scholastic Philosophy itself. The present Book deals, therefore, with Scholastic Philosophy, that splendid and perfected system of speculation which alone, of all the systems formulated by men in the continuous course of philosophical endeavor, meets at all points the requirements of a complete rational inquiry into knowable things. 168 This system had its earliest beginnings in the late 8 century; its proximate origin is assigned to the 9, 10, and early 11 centuries ; it developed into proper form in the late 11 and the 12 centuries; and in the 13 century it appeared in full perfection in the marvellous synthesis of Aquinas. Afterwards it declined—in favor, that is to say, not in itself, for it is a system of principles perfected once and for all time. By the 17 century, Scholasticism had disappeared, and new philosophies, the first of the modern systems, had the field of philosophy to themselves. Scholasticism was regarded as an outworn system, and as a philosophy which had been cunningly, not to say craftily, devised to supplement and support Catholic Theology. This opinion has endured to our own day among most non-Catholic philosophers, many of whom feel free to offer this cheap criticism of Scholasticism without knowing anything about it. Catholic scholars, however, have recently undertaken—and are at the present moment bravely forwarding—the revival of Scholastic Philosophy. They are applying its unchanging principles to the scientific problems of our day. Scholasticism is slowly emerging as Neo-Scholasticism, and promises to recover its ancient splendor. The present Book is divided into five Chapters, as follows : Chapter I. The Preparation for Scholastic Philosophy (800-1050) Chapter II. The Development of Scholastic Philosophy (1050-1200) Chapter III. The Perfection of Scholastic Philosophy (1200-1300) Chapter IV. The Decline of Scholastic Philosophy (1300— 1450) Chapter V. Transition to Modern Philosophy ( 1450- 1600)

THE PREPARATION FOR SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY (8OO-IO5O) Even during the Golden Age of the Roman Empire barbarian hordes had made incursions into western Europe and had been thrust back again and again by the imperial cohorts. But Rome weakened and fell ; the barbarian inroads continued. Successful at last, the savages spread through Europe, and as early as the 5 century Italy itself was under their control. All institutions of civilization and culture failed in this crisis —all but one. The Church of Jesus Christ endured when the greatest and most powerful of the works of man were laid in ruins. True to her divine mission, the Church set to work to convert the barbarians. She sent out missionaries; she founded monasteries ; she opened schools. In time her labors bore fruit, and in the 8 century the new Europeans had been brought into some semblance of civilization and spiritual culture : the Church had taught them priceless lessons ; they had come to know something of their dignity, their destiny, and the necessity of living virtuously for supernatural motives. Only when this work had been done could the Church implant and foster in the minds of her new and warlike children that love of learning which has always been the mark of her influence. Before the end of the 8 century the Church had set on foot a strong tendency in the direction of education. The influence of the monastery schools began to be generally felt. Kings, fired by zeal for learning, favored the new movement. None was more earnest among the royal patrons of learning than 170 the first monarch of his time, Charlemagne, King of the Franks. This great ruler labored as tirelessly for the welfare of his subjects as for the extension of his kingdom, and his efforts for the revival of learning were earnest and persevering. There had been a school at the palace of the Frankish kings from the days of the Merovingians, but it was an aristocratic institution, meant to prepare for Church and State the scions of leading families. This was the so-called Palatine or Palace School. Charlemagne made this institution the centre of the new learning. He imported teachers from the north (England and Ireland), where the lamp of learning had continued to glow during the days of the prostration of Europe; he collected the relics of classical literature, Christian and pagan; he collaborated with Alcuin, chief master of his School, in securing the cooperation of abbots and bishops everywhere throughout his realm in the work of establishing schools. It is to this new movement for education, this “Revival of Learning” of the 8 century, that we must trace the very earliest beginnings of Scholastic Philosophy. In medieval language the word “scholastic” meant any scholar of recognized ability, but the word was used in a special way to designate the head of a school. Now the heads of medieval schools were generally men who had not only mastered the seven liberal arts (i. e., the trivium: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic; and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music), but were versed also in philosophy and theology. As the name of a special system of philosophy, “Scholastic” designates that system of doctrine which originated in the Schools during the Revival of Learning and reached perfection with St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13 century. Its characteristic marks are two : first, it is thoroughly rational in method, using the light of reason alone for the investigation of truth. In this it follows the best of the philosophies of antiquity, the Greek, and the best of the Greek philosophies, the Aristotelean. Its second characteristic mark is that it uses Christian Faith or Revelation as a directive norm Revelation is not used as a source of argument, but only as a test of conclusions. Since Faith is certain, and known with absolute security as the truth, it can be used as a criterion or test ; and the philosopher can use its light as a guide in the fields of research. As the light of strong lamps guides the motorist, but turns no wheels, so Revelation illumines the way of the Scholastic Philosopher, but does not serve him as a font of argument or proof. And the philosopher, be it noted, is like the motorist also in this: that he courts disaster if he moves forward without light upon his path. Now, before taking up the beginnings of Scholasticism, it will be well to make a preliminary study of the great question that, directly or indirectly, engaged the best efforts of even the earliest Scholastics,‘—the question of Universal Ideas, or simply “Universals,” as they are called. After discussing this question, the student can go on intelligently to trace out the course of Scholasticism, its rise, development, perfection, decline. Therefore the present Chapter is divided into the following three articles : Article I.—The Great Question of Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Article 2.—The Carlovingian Schools and Their Masters. Article 3.—The First Medieval Philosophers. Article i. The Great Question of Philosophy in the Middle Ages The most important, though by no means the only question that engaged the minds of medieval philosophers was the question of Universals. The famous controversy in this matter did not appear in full flare until the 11 century, but the earliest Scholastics touched the question at least indirectly. It seems best, therefore, to give some account of Universals before taking up the beginnings of Medieval Philosophy.