Preliminary Remarks: Greek Philosophy

PRELIMINARY REMARKS In the latter 14 century b. c., a people called Hellenes came from the north and spread through the Grecian Peninsula. This people was divided into four tribes—the Achæans, the Ionians, the Dorians, and the Æolians. The Ionians settled in southern Greece—a region called the Peloponnesus—but were driven thence in the 12 century b. c. by the Dorians. Many of the Ionians went across the Ægean Sea to Asia Minor, where they founded the first and most important of the Greek colonies, later known as Ionia. Colonization progressed rapidly, and by the 7 century b. c. Greece was the whole circle of shores and islands of the Mediterranean Sea with its dependent gulfs and bays. In the motherland, as well as in the great brood of colonies, the government was that of independent city-states, which were kingdoms at first, and then free republics. The Persian wars of the early 5 century b. c. taught the Greeks the value of union and organization, and the states leagued together in federation. This league strengthened the Greeks as a nation, but it led to the jealousies of the great Dorian city-state called Sparta, and the powerful Ionian city-state called Athens. Frequent wars were waged between the two cities. Sparta ultimately triumphed, but died slowly of her wounds, and in the 4 century b. c. Greece was conquered and brought under the rule of the Macedonians. Then came the march of the Roman eagles through all the world, and in the 32 2 century b. c. Greece was reduced to the status of a Roman Province under the name Achæa. Archaeological investigations conducted during the last century give us certainty that the Greeks of pre-Homeric times —i. e., before the 9 century b. c.—were imbued with the idea of one supreme God. But this monotheism quickly deteriorated into a belief in a plurality of gods (polytheism). The gods were regarded at first as parts of the universe (naturalistic polytheism), and of these Zeus, the firmament, was the most powerful. Later, the deities were personified and made a kind of super-men (anthropomorphic polytheism) ; they were thought to be multiplied by human generation, and swayed by human weaknesses and passions. Indeed, the poems of Homer and Hesiod, which give an account of the gods of Olympus, seem to make the superiority of gods over men consist chiefly in the fact that gods cannot die and men must. The human soul, however, was regarded as immortal, and the Homeric poems tell of sacrifices offered for the dead, of Achilles praying for the soul of the dead Patroclus, of the souls of the dead appearing to Ulysses, etc. The soul was regarded as a subtle material thing, a sort of shadow-image or shade of bodily man. After death the souls of men, good and bad alike, went down to Hades. This was not so much a place of retribution as a mere residence of departed shades or souls. However, the souls of those guilty of atrocious crimes were punished in Hades, while souls of signal merit were taken to the abode of the gods. In moral notions the Greeks did not differ largely from other ancient peoples. Zeus was the supreme giver of laws; he protected the good, and his anger fell heavily upon the wicked, especially upon unjust judges. The Greek code of morals demanded assiduous worship of the gods, justice, benevolence, love of country. These religious and moral notions remained unchanged for ages. Philosophers railed at the silliness of polytheism, but with small effect; and little wonder, for even the thinkers who found poly theism absurd were quite likely to take a full and willing part in the external worship of the gods, particularly at festivals. The first Greek philosophers were “wise men” or “sages” who delivered maxims of prudent counsel in epigram, such as: “Know thyself,” “Nothing to excess,” “Be slow to decide but swift to execute,” etc. Seven of the sages achieved such a reputation for wisdom that they have passed into history as “The Seven Wise Men of Greece.” The famous seven were: Solon, Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Chilon, Periander, and Cleobulus. Instead of the last two, Myson and Anacharsis, are sometimes named. The Wise Men were not philosophers in a true sense, but they bridged the gap historically between religion-philosophy and philosophy properly so called. The Greek mind was strikingly original and the development of Greek thought owes little to Oriental influence. Of course, the traditional notions of God, the soul, and fundamental moral principles came to the Greeks as a natural human heritage from the older civilization of the East. But it is only in this sense that Greek philosophy can be said to owe anything to the Orientals. In Greece alone of ancient countries true speculation achieved its greatest approach to perfection. The reason for this fact is twofold : first, the native talent and disposition of the Greeks favored sustained philosophical inquiry into the nature of things (speculation) ; and, secondly, certain extrinsic circumstances favored the development of Greek thought. Such circumstances were : i—The geographical situation of Greece. The Mediterranean made communication between Greek colonies and the motherland easy and convenient. The colonists were spread far and wide and came in contact with many and varied types of peoples. Since all the Greeks spoke the same language, the findings of the several quickly became the possession of all. Thus the Greeks quickly learned all that other peoples had to teach them in arts, science, and the forming and managing of civil institutions. Thus the Greek cultural equipment was extended.

2— The social regimen in vogue in Greece. Between the small city-states of Greece there existed a constant friendly rivalry, which extended to matters intellectual. There was opportunity for exhibition of excellence in the things of the mind as well as in bodily agility at the frequent games and gatherings for religious festivals. Rewards were offered for achievement on such occasions, and this increased in contestants the desire to excel.

3— The schools and theatres which existed everywhere in Greece. These furnished the teacher and playwright the opportunity of getting theories broadcast and of wielding influence. Here again was a field of competition and rivalry which gave impetus to the development of Greek thought. The greatest of all Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. About these men we group our divisions of the history of Greek philosophy. The present Book discusses the Greek and Greco-Roman Philosophy in the following four chapters : Chapter I. Pre-Socratic Philosophy Chapter II. Socratic Philosophy Chapter III. Post-Aristotelean Philosophy Chapter IV. Greco-Roman Philosophy PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY 64O-44O B. C. This Chapter discusses the Greek philosophy of the time preceding Socrates (mid-5 century b. c.). It is divided into six articles, each of which deals with a particular school, i. e.. a group of philosophers who have common elements in their teachings. The articles are: Article I. The Earlier Ionian School Article 2. The Pythagorean School Article 3. The Eleatic School Article 4. The Later Ionian School Article 5. The Atomist School Article 6. The Sophist School Article i. The Earlier Ionian School

a) Thales; b) Anaximander; c) Anaximenes. Ionia, first and most important of the Greek colonies, was situated in Asia Minor on the shores and islands which look westward towards the Grecian peninsula across the Ægean Sea. The most notable city of Ionia was Miletus, birthplace of all three philosophers here discussed. The problem investigated by the Earlier Ionians was that presented by the material universe. They inquired, “What, in the last analysis, is the world made of?” They saw a world around them which evidently remained the same world, and yet was full of change, motion, and of variety. There were 36